Οι αρπαγές πολιτιστικών θησαυρών δεν αποτελούν γνώρισμα των καιρών μας

Οι αρπαγές πολιτιστικών θησαυρών δεν αποτελούν γνώρισμα των καιρών μας. Εχουν μεγάλη προϊστορία και είναι πολύ γνωστές και στον ελληνικό χώρο. Ο Ξέρξης, π.χ., κατά τη γνωστή εκστρατεία του, μετέφερε στην Περσία ορισμένα αγάλματα με πολιτική ή θρησκευτική σημασία, για να τον ακολουθήσουν αργότερα, με ξέφρενους ρυθμούς, οι ρωμαίοι κατακτητές. Τα κρούσματα λεηλασίας καλλιτεχνημάτων είναι διαχρονικά και παγκόσμια. Εντελώς πρόσφατα έγιναν στη Ρώμη και στη Μόσχα δύο σχετικές εκθέσεις. Στην πρώτη, με τον χαρακτηριστικό τίτλο «Νόστοι», εκτέθηκαν δεκάδες επαναπατρισθέντες στην Ιταλία αρχαιότητες, που είχαν φυγαδευθεί στις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες μέσω της αρχαιοκαπηλίας. Στη δεύτερη παρουσιάστηκαν αρχαία που είχαν αποσπάσει από τα κρατικά μουσεία του Βερολίνου τα ρωσικά στρατεύματα, όταν κατέλαβαν το 1944 την πόλη. Οι Ρώσοι μάλιστα, θέλοντας να αποθαρρύνουν κάθε κίνηση για τυχόν επαναπατρισμό τους, κατέστησαν σαφές ότι τα αντικείμενα αυτά δεν πρόκειται να επιστραφούν. Τα θεωρούν ένα είδος αποζημίωσης, και μάλιστα ελάχιστης, για το αίμα που έχυσαν κατά τον Β' Παγκόσμιο Πόλεμ


Επειδή πριν μερικές ημέρες ήταν η επέτειος της άλωσης της Κωνσταντινούπολης από τους οθωμανούς, θα αναφερθώ σε καλλιτεχνικούς θησαυρούς με τους οποίους διάφοροι βυζαντινοί αυτοκράτορες, με πρώτο και καλύτερο τον Μέγα Κωνσταντίνο, «στόλισαν» τη Βασιλεύουσα, αφαιρώντας τους από διάφορα σημεία της αυτοκρατορίας. Η τελευταία μαρτυρημένη τέτοια «αρπαγή» σχετίζεται με τον αυτοκράτορα Κώνσταντα Β'. Το 663, επισκεπτόμενος τη Ρώμη, αφαίρεσε από την «Αιώνια Πόλη» διάφορα καλλιτεχνήματα, ανάμεσά τους και ορειχάλκινα κεραμίδια από το Πάνθεον. Το φορτίο όμως αυτό ποτέ δεν έφτασε στην Πόλη, καθώς έπεσε στα χέρια των Αράβων.



Ορισμένα κτίσματα της Κωνσταντινούπολης θα μπορούσαν άνετα να χαρακτηρισθούν γλυπτοθήκες αρχαίας πλαστικής, όπως, π.χ., ο Ιππόδρομος. Εδώ υπήρχε πλήθος αγαλμάτων, ανάμεσά τους και το χάλκινο τμήμα του τρίποδα που είχαν αναθέσει οι Ελληνες στους Δελφούς για τη νίκη τους στις Πλαταιές εναντίον των Περσών. Ακόμη υπήρχαν αγάλματα Διοσκούρων, ένας χάλκινος Ηρακλής του Λυσίππου, ένα ξεχωριστό τέθριππο, που μερικοί το ταυτίζουν με αυτό που βρίσκεται σήμερα στην πρόσοψη της Βασιλικής του Αγίου Μάρκου στη Βενετία. Είναι πολύ χαρακτηριστικό ότι το τελευταίο, λεία των Σταυροφόρων από την Κωνσταντινούπολη κατά την άλωσή της το 1204, το «άρπαξε» με τη σειρά του ο Ναπολέων για να διακοσμήσει μια θριαμβευτική αψίδα στο Παρίσι, αλλά επιστράφηκε και πάλι στη Βενετία. Σημαντικές αρχαιότητες υπήρχαν και στη Σύγκλητο του Αυγουσταίου, όπως μπρούντζινα ανάγλυφα που απεικόνιζαν τη μάχη των αρχαίων θεών εναντίον των Γιγάντων, αγάλματα των Μουσών του Ελικώνα, αλλά και της Αρτεμης, της Αφροδίτης, της Λινδίας Αθηνάς και του Δωδωναίου Δία. Τα δύο τελευταία μάλιστα διασώθηκαν με θαυμαστό τρόπο κατά την πυρπόληση του κτιρίου το 404, πιθανόν από οπαδούς του Ιωάννη Χρυσοστόμου, και αυτό για τους πιστούς της αρχαίας θρησκείας σήμαινε ότι οι θεοί τους ήταν ακόμη ζωντανοί. Στις Θέρμες του Ζευξίππου μπορούσε να δει κανείς δεκάδες μπρούντζινα αγάλματα θεών, ηρώων και επωνύμων ανδρών του αρχαίου κόσμου. Βρέθηκαν σε ανασκαφές οι ενεπίγραφες βάσεις δύο εξ αυτών: της Εκάβης και του Αισχίνη. Ενας αξιωματούχος της εποχής του Θεοδοσίου Β' είχε συγκεντρώσει στο μέγαρό του, γνωστό ως Παλάτι του Λαύσου από το όνομά του, πληθώρα αγαλμάτων της αρχαίας τέχνης, ανάμεσά τους και δημιουργίες περίφημων καλλιτεχνών της αρχαιότητας. Ξεχώριζαν ο χρυσελεφάντινος Δίας του Φειδία από την Ολυμπία, η Κνιδία Αφροδίτη του Πραξιτέλη, ο φτερωτός Καιρός του Λυσίππου.

Εχει απασχολήσει τους ειδικούς το ερώτημα πώς οι θεοί της αρχαίας θρησκείας συνυπήρξαν με τους χριστιανούς κατοίκους της Βασιλεύουσας. Γιατί είναι βέβαιο ότι αρχαία αγάλματα επέζησαν ως το τέλος της αυτοκρατορίας παρά τις συχνές καταστροφές τους από πυρκαϊές, σεισμούς, στάσεις, λεηλασίες, βανδαλισμούς. Τα χάλκινα φίδια, π.χ., από τον τρίποδα-ανάθημα των Ελλήνων στους Δελφούς που μνημονεύσαμε παραπάνω, διασώζονται ως τις ημέρες μας. Ξέρουμε επίσης ότι στη Χρυσή Πύλη υπήρχαν ως τον 18ο αι. δώδεκα ανάγλυφες πλάκες με παραστάσεις - εκτός των άλλων - άθλων του Ηρακλή, από τις οποίες έχουν βρεθεί λιγοστά σπαράγματα. Θα ήταν απλοϊκή γενίκευση όλα αυτά τα παγανιστικά έργα να θεωρούνται απλώς διακοσμητικά, ενώ αφελής είναι η άποψη που υποστηρίζει ότι η δημόσια έκθεσή τους απέβλεπε στον χλευασμό της παλιάς θρησκείας. Σε κάποιες περιπτώσεις η ανίδρυση αρχαίων αγαλμάτων εντασσόταν στην πολιτική των αυτοκρατόρων σε μια δεδομένη χρονική στιγμή. Η «διακόσμηση», π.χ., της Συγκλήτου με μια σειρά «εικόνων» του αρχαίου κόσμου στα πρώτα χρόνια ζωής της νέας πρωτεύουσας, όταν οι ειδωλολάτρες είχαν ακόμη μια ισχυρή παρουσία εδώ, αποσκοπούσε, χωρίς αμφιβολία, στη διατήρηση των δεσμών της αυτοκρατορίας με τον ελληνορωμαϊκό κόσμο. Κάποια άλλα από τα «είδωλα» αυτά επέζησαν γιατί με το πέρασμα του χρόνου συνδέθηκαν με διάφορους θρύλους, συχνά σχετικούς και με την τύχη της πόλης ή επειδή θεωρήθηκαν ότι απεικόνιζαν χριστιανούς αγίους ή αξιωματούχους. Ετσι, π.χ., ένα άγαλμα με τρία κεφάλια και έξι χέρια, πιθανότατα του μυθικού Γηρυόνη, που βρισκόταν στη Σύγκλητο του Φόρουμ, στα μάτια του πολύ κόσμου απεικόνιζε τον Μέγα Κωνσταντίνο μαζί με τους δύο γιους του, τον Κωνστάντιο και τον Κώνσταντα.

Ο κ. Μιχάλης Α. Τιβέριος είναι καθηγητής Κλασικής Αρχαιολογίας στο Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης.

Σύμφωνα με μια ορφική παράδοση ο ίδιος ο Δίας όρισε τον γιο του βασιλέα όλων των θεών του κόσμου

Σύμφωνα με μια ορφική παράδοση ο ίδιος ο Δίας όρισε τον γιο του βασιλέα όλων των θεών του κόσμου, ενώ είναι γνωστό ότι ο Διόνυσος συχνά ενσάρκωνε και άλλους θεούς, όπως τον Ηλιο και τον Απόλλωνα. «Ο κόσμος είναι ο Δίας και ο Διόνυσος ο νους του κόσμου (Διός νους)». Ο Διόνυσος ήταν και μια πάσχουσα όσο και ακατάλυτη θεότητα. «Γιος του υπέρτατου θεού και μιας θνητής, θανατώνεται από θεοκτόνους αλλά ανασταίνεται θριαμβικά».

Με τέτοια δεδομένα η σύγκρουση ανάμεσα στους οπαδούς του Χριστού και σ' αυτούς του Διονύσου ήταν αναπόφευκτη. Οι χριστιανοί δεν δίστασαν να υιοθετήσουν διονυσιακά σύμβολα με πρώτο το κλήμα. «Εγώ ειμί η άμπελος η αληθινή» διακήρυξε ο ιδρυτής της νέας θρησκείας, για τον οποίο ο πολυμαθής θιασώτης του χριστιανισμού Κλήμης ο Αλεξανδρεύς είπε χαρακτηριστικά ότι είναι «ο μέγας βότρυς, ο Λόγος, ο υπέρ ημών θλιβείς». Ετσι οι απεικονίσεις του κλήματος είναι πολύ συχνές σε τοιχογραφίες κατακομβών, σε ψηφιδωτές παραστάσεις εκκλησιών κ.α. Πρέπει ωστόσο να επισημάνουμε ότι ο χριστιανισμός, αν και οικειοποιήθηκε τα σύμβολα του Διονύσου, τον οποίο και ονομάτισε ως τον μεγαλύτερο εχθρό του, δεν μπόρεσε να απαλλαγεί εύκολα από αυτόν και ας είχε την πλήρη στήριξη της κρατικής εξουσίας. Ακόμη και στα τέλη του 7ου αι. μ.X., η Στ´ Οικουμενική Σύνοδος ασχολείται μαζί του και απαγορεύει ρητά στους χριστιανούς να τον επικαλούνται, να χρησιμοποιούν διονυσιακά προσωπεία και να παριστούν διονυσιακά δρώμενα!

Greek Religion Destruction Chronology (314-870 C.E)

Greek Religion Destruction Chronology (314-870 C.E)

314 Immediately after its full legalization, the Christian Church attacks the gentiles (non-Christians). The Council of Ancyra denounces the worship of Goddess Artemis.



324 The emperor Constantine declares Christianity as the only official religion of the Roman empire. In Dydima, Minor Asia, he sacks the Oracle of the god Apollo and tortures the pagan priests to death. He also evicts all non-Christian peoples from Mount Athos and destroys all the local Hellenic temples.



326 Constantine, following the instructions of his mother Helen, destroys the temple of the god Asclepius in Aigeai of Cilicia and many temples of the goddess Aphrodite in Jerusalem, Aphaca, Mambre, Phoenice, Baalbek, etc.



330 Constantine steals the treasures and statues of the pagan temples of Greece to decorate Nova Roma (Constantinople), the new capital of his Empire.



335 Constantine sacks many pagan temples of Minor Asia and Palestine and orders the execution by crucifixion of "all magicians and soothsayers." Martyrdom of the neoplatonist philosopher Sopatrus.



341 Flavius Julius Constantius persecutes "all the soothsayers and the Hellenists." Many gentile Hellenes are either imprisoned or executed.



346 New large scale persecutions against non-Christian peoples in Constantinople. Banishment of the famous orator Libanius accused as a "magician".



353 An edict of Constantius orders the death penalty for all kind of worship through sacrifices and "idols".



354 A new edict orders the closing of all the pagan temples. Some of them are profaned and turned into brothels or gambling rooms. Executions of pagan priests.



354 A new edict of Constantius orders the destruction of the pagan temples and the execution of all "idolaters". First burning of libraries in various cities of the empire. The first lime factories are being organised next to the closed pagan temples. A major part of the holy architecture of the pagans turns to lime.



357 Constantius outlaws all methods of divination (astrology not excluded).



359 In Skythopolis, Syria, the Christians organize the first death camps for the torture and executions of the arrested non-Christians from all around the empire.



361 to 363 Religious tolerance and restoration of the pagan cults declared in Constantinople (11th December 361) by the pagan emperor Flavius Claudius Julianus.



363 Assassination of Julianus (26th June).



364 Emperor Flavius Jovianus orders the burning of the Library of Antioch.



364 An Imperial edict (11th September) orders the death penalty for all those that worship their ancestral gods or practice divination ("sileat omnibus perpetuo divinandi curiositas"). Three different edicts (4th February, 9th September, 23rd December) order the confiscation of all properties of the pagan temples and the death penalty for participation in pagan rituals, even private ones.



365 An Imperial edict (17th November) forbids the gentile (pagan) officers of the army to command Christian soldiers.



370 Valens orders a tremendous persecution of non-Christian peoples in all the Eastern Empire. In Antioch, among many other non-Christians, the ex-governor Fidustius and the priests Hilarius and Patricius are executed. Tons of books are burnt in the squares of the cities of the Eastern Empire. All the friends of Julianus are persecuted (Orebasius, Sallustius, Pegasius etc.), the philosopher Simonides is burned alive and the philosopher Maximus is decapitated.



372 Valens orders the governor of Minor Asia to exterminate all the Hellenes and all documents of their wisdom.



373 New prohibition of all divination methods. The term "pagan" (pagani, villagers, equivalent to the modern insult, "peasants") is introduced by the Christians to demean non-believers.



375 The temple of god Asclepius in Epidaurus, Greece, is closed down by the Christians.



380 On 27th February, Christianism becomes the exclusive religion of the Roman empire by an edict of the emperor Flavius Theodosius, requiring that:



All the various nations which are subject to our clemency and moderation should continue in the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter.






The non-Christians are called "loathsome, heretics, stupid and blind". In another edict, Theodosius calls "insane" those that do not believe to the Christian God and outlaws all disagreements with the Church dogmas. Ambrosius, bishop of Milan, starts destroying all the pagan temples of his area. The Christian priests lead the hungry mob against the temple of goddess Demeter in Eleusis and try to lynch the hierophants Nestorius and Priskus. The 95 years old hierophant Nestorius ends the Eleusinian Mysteries and announces the predominance of mental darkness over the human race.



381 On 2nd May, Theodosius deprives of all their rights the Christians that return back to the pagan religion. In all the Eastern Empire the pagan temples and Libraries are looted or burned down. On 21st December, Theodosius outlaws even simple visits to the temples of the Hellenes. In Constantinople, the temple of goddess Aphrodite is turned to a brothel and the temples of Sun and Artemis to stables.



382 "Hellelujah" ("Glory to Yahweh") is imposed in the Christian mass.



384 Theodosius orders the Praetorian Prefect Maternus Cynegius, a dedicated Christian, to cooperate with the local bishops and destroy the temples of the pagans in Northern Greece and Minor Asia.



385 to 388 Maternus Cynegius, encouraged by his fanatic wife, and bishop "Saint" Marcellus with his gangs scour the countryside and sack and destroy hundreds of Hellenic temples, shrines and altars. Among others they destroy the temple of Edessa, the Cabeireion of Imbros, the temple of Zeus in Apamea, the temple of Apollo in Dydima and all the temples of Palmyra. Thousands of innocent pagans from all sides of the empire suffer martyrdom in the notorious death camps of Skythopolis.



386 Theodosius outlaws (16th June) the care of the sacked pagan temples.



388 Public talks on religious subjects are outlawed by Theodosius. The old orator Libanius sends his famous epistle "Pro Templis" to Theodosius with the hope that the few remaining Hellenic temples will be respected and spared.



389 to 390 All non-Christian date-methods are outlawed. Hordes of fanatic hermits from the desert flood the cities of the Middle East and Egypt and destroy statues, altars, libraries and pagan temples, and lynch the pagans. Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria, starts heavy persecutions against non-Christian peoples, turns the temple of Dionysos into a Christian church, burns down the Mithraeum of the city, destroys the temple of Zeus and burlesques the pagan priests before they are killed by stoning. The Christian mob profanes the cult images.



391 On 24th February, a new edict of Theodosius prohibits not only visits to pagan temples but also looking at the vandalized statues. New heavy persecutions all around the empire. In Alexandria, Egypt, pagans, led by the philosopher Olympius, revolt and after some street fights they lock themselves inside the fortified temple of god Serapis (the Serapeion). After a violent siege, the Christians take over the building, demolish it, burn its famous library and profane the cult images.



392 On 8th November, Theodosius outlaws all the non-Christian rituals and names them "superstitions of the gentiles" (gentilicia superstitio). New full scale persecutions against pagans. The Mysteries of Samothrace are ended and the priests slaughtered. In Cyprus the local bishop "Saint" Epiphanius and "Saint" Tychon destroy almost all the temples of the island and exterminate thousands of non-Christians. The local Mysteries of goddess Aphrodite are ended. Theodosius's edict declares: "the ones that won't obey pater Epiphanius have no right to keep living in that island". The pagans revolt against the emperor and the Church in Petra, Aeropolis, Rafia, Gaza, Baalbek and other cities of the Middle East.



393 The Pythian Games, the Aktia Games and the Olympic Games are outlawed as part of the Hellenic "idolatry". The Christians sack the temples of Olympia.



395 Two new edicts (22nd July and 7th August) cause new persecutions against pagans. Rufinus, the eunuch Prime Minister of emperor Flavius Arcadius directs the hordes of the baptized Goths (led by Alaric) to the country of the Hellenes. Encouraged by Christian monks the barbarians sack and burn many cities (Dion, Delphi, Megara, Corinth, Pheneos, Argos, Nemea, Lycosoura, Sparta, Messene, Phigaleia, Olympia, etc.), slaughter or enslave innumerable gentile Hellenes and burn down all the temples. Among others, they burn down the Eleusinian Sanctuary and burn alive all its priests (including the hierophant of Mithras Hilarius).



396 On 7th December, a new edict by Arcadius orders that paganism be treated as high treason. Imprisonment of the few remaining pagan priests and hierophants.



397 "Demolish them!". Flavius Arcadius orders all the still standing pagan temples to be demolished.



398 The Fourth Church Council of Carthage prohibits to everybody, including to the Christian bishops, the study of the books of the pagans. Porphyrius, bishop of Gaza, demolishes almost all the pagan temples of his city (except 9 of them that remain active).



399 With a new edict (13th July) Flavius Arcadius orders all the still standing pagan temples, mainly in the countryside, to be immediately demolished.



400 Bishop Nicetas destroys the Oracle of the god Dionysus in Vesai and baptizes all the non-Christians of this area.



401 The Christian mob of Carthage lynches non-Christians and destroys temples and "idols". In Gaza too, the local bishop "Saint" Porphyrius sends his followers to lynch pagans and to demolish the remaining 9 still active temples of the city. The 15th Council of Chalkedon orders all the Christians that still keep good relations with their gentile relatives to be excommunicated (even after their death).



405 John Chrysostom sends hordes of gray dressed monks armed with clubs and iron bars to destroy the "idols" in all the cities of Palestine.



406 John Chrysostom collects funds from rich Christian women to financially support the demolition of the Hellenic temples. In Ephessus he orders the destruction of the famous temple of goddess Artemis. In Salamis, Cyprus, "Saints" Epiphanius and Eutychius continue the persecutions of the pagans and the total destruction of their temples and sanctuaries.



407 A new edict outlaws once more all the non-Christian acts of worship



408 The emperor of the Western Empire, Honorius, and the emperor of the Eastern Empire, Arcadius, order together all the sculptures of the pagan temples to be either destroyed or to be taken away. Private ownership of pagan sculpture is also outlawed. The local bishops lead new heavy persecutions against the pagans and new book burning. The judges that have pity for the pagans are also persecuted. "Saint" Augustine massacres hundreds of protesting pagans in Calama, Algeria.



409 Another edict orders all methods of divination including astrology to be punished by death.



415 In Alexandria, Egypt, the Christian mob, urged by the bishop Cyrillus, attacks a few days before the Judaeo-Christian Pascha (Easter) and cuts to pieces the famous and beautiful philosopher Hypatia. The pieces of her body, carried around by the Christian mob through the streets of Alexandria, are finally burned together with her books in a place called Cynaron. On 30th August, new persecutions start against all the pagan priests of North Africa who end their lives either crucified or burned alive.



416 The inquisitor Hypatius, alias "The Sword of God", exterminates the last pagans of Bithynia. In Constantinople (7th December) all non-Christian army officers, public employees and judges are dismissed.



423 Emperor Theodosius II declares (8th June) that the religion of the pagans is nothing more than "demon worship" and orders all those who persist in practicing it to be punished by imprisonment and torture.



429 The temple of goddess Athena (Parthenon) on the Acropolis of Athens is sacked. The Athenian pagans are persecuted.



435 On 14th November, a new edict by Theodosius II orders the death penalty for all "heretics" and pagans of the empire. Only Judaism is considered a legal non-Christian religion.



438 Theodosius II issues an new edict (31st January) against the pagans, incriminating their "idolatry" as the reason of a recent plague!



440 to 450 The Christians demolish all the monuments, altars and temples of Athens, Olympia, and other Greek cities.



448 Theodosius II orders all non-Christian books to be burned.



450 All the temples of Aphrodisias (the City of the Goddess Aphrodite) are demolished and all its libraries burned down. The city is renamed Stavroupolis (City of the Cross).



451 New edict by Theodosius II (4th November) emphasises that "idolatry" is punished by death.



457 to 491 Sporadic persecutions against the pagans of the Eastern Empire. Among others, the physician Jacobus and the philosopher Gessius are executed. Severianus, Herestios, Zosimus, Isidorus and others are tortured and imprisoned. The proselytiser Conon and his followers exterminate the last non-Christians of Imbros Island, Norheast Aegean Sea. The last worshippers of Lavranius Zeus are exterminated in Cyprus.



482 to 488 The majority of the pagans of Minor Asia are exterminated after a desperate revolt against the emperor and the Church.



486 More "underground" pagan priests are discovered, arrested, burlesqued, tortured and executed in Alexandria, Egypt.



515 Baptism becomes obligatory even for those that already say they are Christians. The emperor of Constantinople, Anastasius, orders the massacre of the pagans in the Arabian city Zoara and the demolition of the temple of local godndrites.



528 Emperor Jutprada (Justinianus) outlaws the "alternative" Olympian Games of Antioch. He also orders the execution—by fire, crucifixion, tearing to pieces by wild beasts or cutting to pieces by iron nails—of all who practice "sorcery, divination, magic or idolatry" and prohibits all teachings by the pagans ("the ones suffering from the blasphemous insanity of the Hellenes").



529 Justinianus outlaws the Athenian Philosophical Academy and has its property confiscated.



532 The inquisitor Ioannis Asiacus, a fanatic monk, leads a crusade against the pagans of Minor Asia.



542 Justinianus allows the inquisitor Ioannis Asiacus to convert the pagans of Phrygia, Caria and Lydia, Minor Asia. Within 35 years of this crusade, 99 churches and 12 monasteries are built on the sites of demolished pagan temples.



546 Hundreds of pagans are put to death in Constantinople by the inquisitor Ioannis Asiacus.



556 Justinianus orders the notorious inquisitor Amantius to go to Antioch, to find, arrest, torture and exterminate the last non-Christians of the city and burn all the private libraries down.



562 Mass arrests, burlesquing, tortures, imprisonments and executions of gentile Hellenes in Athens, Antioch, Palmyra and Constantinople.



578 to 582 The Christians torture and crucify gentile Hellenes all around the Eastern Empire, and exterminate the last non-Christians of Heliopolis (Baalbek).



580 The Christian inquisitors attack a secret temple of Zeus in Antioch. The priest commits suicide, but the rest of the pagans are arrested. All the prisoners, the Vice Governor Anatolius included, are tortured and sent to Constantinople to face trial. Sentenced to death they are thrown to the lions. The wild animals being unwilling to tear them to pieces, they end up crucified. Their dead bodies are dragged in the streets by the Christian mob and afterwards thrown unburied in the dump.



583 New persecutions against the gentile Hellenes by the Mauricius.



590 In all the Eastern Empire the Christian accusers "discover" pagan conspiracies. New storm of torture and executions.



692 The "Penthekto" Council of Constantinople prohibits the remains of Calends, Brumalia, Anthesteria, and other pagan/Dionysian celebrations.



804 The gentile Hellenes of Mesa Mani (Cape Tainaron, Lakonia, Greece) resist successfully the attempt of Tarasius, Patriarch of Constantinople, to convert them to Christianity.



850 to 860 Violent conversion of the last gentile Hellenes of Laconia by the Armenian "Saint" Nikon.

Η λέξη σεισάχθεια, παράγεται από το ρήμα «σείω» που σημαίνει αφαιρώ και το άχθος

Η λέξη σεισάχθεια, παράγεται από το ρήμα «σείω» που σημαίνει αφαιρώ και το άχθος, δηλαδή το βάρος.
Έτσι λοιπόν στα πλαίσια της εφαρμογής της σεισάχθειας (αποτίναξης βαρών), ο Σόλων:

• Κατάργησε τα υφιστάμενα χρέη ιδιωτών προς ιδιώτες και προς το δημόσιο,
• Απελευθέρωσε όσους Αθηναίους πολίτες είχαν γίνει δούλοι λόγω χρεών και επανέφερε στην Αθήνα, όσους εν τω μεταξύ είχαν μεταπωληθεί στο εξωτερικό.
• Κατάργησε το δανεισμό με εγγύηση το σώμα (προσωπική ελευθερία) του δανειολήπτη και των μελών της οικογένειάς του.
• Αμνήστευσε τα αδικήματα που επέφεραν στέρηση πολιτικών δικαιωμάτων.

Το κύριο χαρακτηριστικό και ο σκοπός προς τον οποίο έτεινε η νομοθεσία του Σόλωνα, ήταν το ισοζύγιο, η ισορροπία, το μέτρο και ο λόγος, εξασφαλιζόμενα δια της πειθούς και της θείας Δίκης.
Φρόντισε να προσδώσει τέτοια πειστική δύναμη στην νομοθεσία του, ώστε όταν έφτασε η ώρα της διαδοχής του στην διαχείριση των κοινών, από τον τύραννο Πεισίστρατο, αυτός σεβάστηκε απολύτως την πάνσοφη εκείνη νομοθεσία του Σόλωνα, η οποία για όλα είχε μεριμνήσει.
Ο Σόλων φρόντισε να εξουδετερώσει την πίεση των πλούσιων και την τοκογλυφία κατά των φτωχών, με την απόσειση των τόκων και τον περιορισμό των οφειλομένων χρεών.

Στα Κορυβαντικά Μυστήρια γίνονταν η μύηση

ΤΑ ΚΟΡΥΒΑΝΤΙΚΑ ΜΥΣΤΗΡΙΑ

Στα Κορυβαντικά Μυστήρια γίνονταν η μύηση σε κάποιο ανώτερο βαθμό με το λεγόμενο "Κορυβαντισμό", κάθαρση δηλαδή και αγιασμό με κορυβαντικές ιερουργίες και τελετές που κατά κάποιον τρόπο γιάτρευαν τους μειούμενους από του παλιού εαυτού τους τα πάθη. Εδώ διαδραματίζονταν μέρος τα Ταυροκαθάψια, και η πυρρίχη, ο ένοπλος ενθουσιαστικός χορός, που έφερνε τους χορευτές σε ενθουσιαστική έκσταση, τους έκανε δηλαδή σαν "μαινόμενους.
Ο στόχος των επιτυχία, τέλος της μυητικής κορυβαντικής ιερουργίας και τελετής των Κορυβαντικών Μυστηρίων , ήταν να αξιωθούν οι μυηθέντες να γίνουν "Κουρήτες", δηλαδή οι νεοφώτιστοι να γίνουν φωτισμένοι μύστες του Ιδαίου Δία. Να γίνουν κατά συνέπεια άξιοι για την εισδοχή τους σε ανώτερο βαθμό, στο βαθμό των "Βάκχων - Ιερέων", που τους έδινε το δικαίωμα έπειτα της εισόδου στην τάξη των Λαβυρινθικών Μυστηρίων. Αυτό όμως για να γίνει έπρεπε ύστερα από τον ιερό χορό και την αναγνώριση της αξιοσύνης τους μετά την ολοκλήρωση της μυητικής τελετής, να ακολουθήσει η θεία Μετάληψη "της σάρκας και του αίματος" του Διόνυσου Ζαγρέα. Την ανακήρυξη των μεμυημένων στα Κορυβαντικά ως ιερέων - βάκχων, ακολουθούσε η τελετή της Θρονώσεως ή του Θρονισμού,.
 

Τα Κορυβαντικά είχαν το σκοπό της προπαρασκευής των νεαρών μυημένων για την ανώτερη τάξη, με την επαφή τους με τις θεϊκές δυνάμεις και της προσφοράς σ' αυτούς της θείας Δωρεάς με τη μετάληψη του πνευματικού φωτός και την καθιέρωσή τους στο βαθμό των ιερέων του θεού Δία.

Ο γαλαξίας της Ανδρομέδας είναι ο πιο κοντινός μεγάλος γαλαξίας στον Γαλαξία μας

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  Ο γαλαξίας της Ανδρομέδας είναι ο πιο κοντινός μεγάλος γαλαξίας στον Γαλαξία μας και αποτελεί έναν απο τους δέκα γαλαξίες που διακρίνονται με γυμνό ματι από τη Γη. Σε περίπου 4,5 δισεκατομμύρια χρόνια, ο γαλαξίας της Ανδρομέδας και ο Γαλαξίας μας αναμένεται να συγκρουστούν. Συνοδεύεται από τουλάχιστον 10 δορυφόρους γαλαξίες με τον πιο αξιοσημείωτο εκ των οποίων τον Γαλαξία του Τριγώνου.

500 ευρώ μηνιαίως είναι το ποσό που παρέχει ο ζάμπλουτος Τούρκος επιχειρηματίας Ομάρ Μπαμπά

500 ευρώ μηνιαίως είναι το ποσό που παρέχει ο ζάμπλουτος Τούρκος επιχειρηματίας Ομάρ Μπαμπά για κάθε παιδί που εγκαταλείπει το ελληνικό σχολείο για να φοιτήσει σε ιδιωτικό μουσουλμανικό ιεροσπουδαστήριο, χάριν της ορθότερης εκμάθησης του Ισλάμ κάτω από τη σκέπη βέβαια της τουρκικής κυβέρνησης.

1000 ευρώ ετησίως για κάθε κεφάλι ανήλικου κοριτσιού που θα φορά την παραδοσιακήτούρκικη μαντίλα (η οποία θεωρείται χρόνια τώρα παρωχημένη στην γείτονα) παρέχει άτυπα το τουρκικό προξενείο.

Το πομακόπουλο που ουδεμία σχέση έχει με την τούρκικη κουλτούρα και γλώσσα καλείται να μάθει δίχως άλλη επιλογή τρείς άγνωστες προς αυτό γλώσσες, από την πρώτη κιόλας δημοτικού.

Εδώ και χρόνια προσφέρονται δωρεάν δορυφορικά πιάτα (συνδεδεμένα άμεσα με τα τούρκικα ραδιοτηλεοπτικά μέσα) κυρίως στα ορεινά χωριά της Θράκης (πομακοχώρια) όπου μέχρι σήμερα το σήμα των ελληνικών δικτύων δεν έχει φτάσει ή είναι ανεπαρκές.

Στο κέντρο της Κομοτηνής εδώ και κάποια χρόνια δεσπόζει ,κάτω από τη σκέπη ενός νεόκτιστου και πολυτελούς κτηρίου, η μεγαλοπρεπής τούρκικη τράπεζα Ζιράατ Μπανκ η οποία δανείζει, επιλεκτικά σε μουσουλμάνους αλλά και συλλόγους που φωνάζουν ότι είναι τούρκικοι, με χαμηλά επιτόκια 3% ενώ οι ελληνικές με 14%. Αποτέλεσμα αυτών είναι ο χριστιανός να πουλά και ο μουσουλμάνος (η τράπεζα στην ουσία) να αγοράζει γη.

Ο εγκληματικός (όχι μόνο για τη Θράκη) Καλλικράτης μετέτρεψε τους δήμους της Κομοτηνής σε τέσσερις, με αποτέλεσμα να μην ισχύει πλέον η κοινωνική ισορροπία στους πληθυσμούς των νέων δήμων και έτσι δυο από τους τέσσερις δήμους να έχουν για άρχοντα μουσουλμάνο, εκλεκτό εννοείται του τουρκικού προξενείου και έτοιμο να λειτουργήσει προς όφελος του.

Η επίσης εγκληματική κομματική λίστα έφερε επικίνδυνα αποτελέσματα στην περιοχή. Τα κόμματα που είχαν αξιώσεις στην περιοχή είχαν ως πρώτο όνομα στη λίστα μουσουλμάνο ( εκλεκτό του προξενείου) με αποτέλεσμα δύο από τους τρείς βο«υ»λευτές του νομού Ροδόπης να είναι τελικά από τους παραπάνω «εκλεκτούς».

Χρυσάωρ ο γιος του Ποσειδώνα και της Μέδουσας.

Ο Χρυσάωρ ήταν γιος του Ποσειδώνα και της Μέδουσας. Ο Χρυσάωρ ήταν γιγαντόσωμος πολεμιστής - τέρας που βγήκε μέσα από το σώμα της Μέδουσας μαζί με τον Πήγασο, το φτερωτό άλογο, όταν την αποκεφάλισε ο Περσέας. Ονομάστηκε έτσι επειδή γεννήθηκε με ένα χρυσό σπαθί στο χέρι.

Ηταν πρόγονος πολλών τεράτων και απέκτησε με την Ωκεανίδα Καλλιρρόη δύο παιδιά, τον τρισώματο γίγαντα Γηρυόνη και την Έχιδνα, που ήταν μισή γυναίκα και μισή φίδι. Η Έχιδνα και ο Τυφώνας έφεραν στο φως τον Κέρβερο, τον Όρθρο, το Λιοντάρι της Νεμέας, τη Λερναία Ύδρα, τη Φαία της Κρομμυώνας και τη Σφίγγα της Θήβας.

Δεν χρειάζεται και πολλές συστάσεις ο πολιούχος της Θεσσαλονίκης.

Δεν χρειάζεται και πολλές συστάσεις ο πολιούχος της Θεσσαλονίκης. Η αγιογραφία του τα λέει όλα. Εμφανίζεται να σκοτώνει άνθρωπο. Άξιος ο «μισθός» του από την Εκκλησία και το φωτοστέφανο που του φορά, πόσο μάλλον όταν αυτός που σκοτώνει, «ομοιάζει» και με Ελληνα Εθνικό,τον πρωτοπαλαιστή Λυαίο...Εναν πολεμιστή που φορά την κλασική αρχαιοελληνική πολεμική εξάρτυση και αρχαιοελληνικό οπλισμό (θώρακα, ξίφος, και περικνημίδες). Αν και δεν χρειάζεται βέβαια μια αγιογραφία, για να καταλάβει κάποιος, πως ο Ρωμαίος Δημήτριος, σαν στρατιωτικός, είναι σχεδόν βέβαιο ότι είχε βάψει τα χέρια του και το σπαθί του με αίμα. Αξίζει φυσικά να επισημανθεί, ότι ο Άγιος Δημήτριος αναφέρεται με το συνοδευτικό «Μυροβλύτης», επειδή ο τάφος του ευωδιάζει. Το ότι το «άγιο μύρο» δεν εκλύεται από τον τάφο του Αγίου Δημητρίου, αλλά ρέει τεχνηέντως μέσω αγωγού στο μνήμα του, είναι φυσικά μια μικρή και ασήμαντη λεπτομέρεια...Ο αρχιεπίσκοπος κ. Χριστόδουλος τον είχε ανακήρυξε "προστάτη άγιο των Ελλήνων αθλητών"!!!Παρ' όλα αυτά, φαίνεται ότι για το Αριστοτέλειο
Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης, ο Άγιος Δημήτριος θεωρήθηκε καταλληλότερος ως έμβλημα, ακόμα κι από τον Αριστοτέλη, του οποίου το όνομα φέρει. Ελλάς το μεγαλείο σου...
http://voice-ellasaz.blogspot.gr/2011/02/blog-post_22.html

I AM THANKFUL FOR HIS SACRIFICE

Αυτος που έχει υπερηφάνεια

Αυτος που έχει υπερηφάνεια, δεν θέλει να τον μειώνουν, να τον θίγουν ...δεν θα δεχτεί ελεημοσύνη.Αισθάνεται χαρά και τιμή για κάτι που θεωρεί σπουδαίο.Αυτος που έχει υπερηφάνεια τιμά και τιμάται ιδιαίτερα από κάτι.

    Είναι υπερήφανος για τα παιδιά του...την καταγωγή του...τους γονείς...την πατρίδα του

Κάποτε, ο Πάνας είχε το θράσος να συγκρίνει τον εαυτό του σε μουσική ικανότητα με τον Απόλλωνα

Κάποτε, ο Πάνας είχε το θράσος να συγκρίνει τον εαυτό του σε μουσική ικανότητα με τον Απόλλωνα κι έτσι αποφάσισαν να αναμετρηθούν. Κριτής μπήκε ο Τμώλος και στην αναμέτρηση έτυχε να είναι παρών και ο Μίδας. Ο Πάνας έπαιξε μουσική με τον αυλό του και ο Απόλλων με τη λύρα του. Ο Τμώλος μεμιάς έδωσε τη νίκη στον Απόλλωνα, αλλά ο Μίδας δε συμφώνησε κι έτσι ο Απόλλων του «χάρισε» ένα καινούριο ζευγάρι από αυτιά γαϊδάρου για να ακούει καλύτερα την επόμενη φορά.

Ο βασιλιάς Μίδας ντρεπόταν για τα αυτιά του και προσπάθησε να τα κρύψει με ένα σκούφο. Το μυστικό του φυσικά γνώριζε μόνο ο κουρέας του, ο οποίος όμως επειδή δεν άντεξε, πήγε σ' ένα χωράφι, έσκαψε ένα λάκκο και ψιθύρισε την ιστορία. Μετά σκέπασε το λάκκο με χώμα, κι έφυγε. Στο χώμα όμως φύτρωσαν καλάμια, τα οποία άρχισαν να διαδίδουν την ιστορία με το φύσημα του ανέμου, ότι δηλ. ο βασιλιάς Μίδας είχε γαϊδουρινά αυτιά, κι έτσι όλοι μάθανε για το πάθημά του.

Οι Σειρήνες κατέχουν τις γνώσεις και τις τεχνικές

Οι Σειρήνες κατέχουν τις γνώσεις και τις τεχνικές να χειρίζονται το σημείο αντίληψης των ανθρώπων προωθώντας τα δικά τους συμφέροντα …αναρριχόμενες στα βράχια.
Γνωρίζουν βαθιά και πολύ καλά την ανθρώπινη φύση, τις αδυναμίες της τους καημούς της, τα παράπονα της τις προσδοκίες της, την λαχτάρα της ψυχής για καταφύγιο και ξέρουν να τραγουδούν γλυκά για όλα αυτά.

Οταν ακούς να μιλούν για τον ''Παράδεισο''

Οταν ακούς να μιλούν για τον ''Παράδεισο'' που μας περιμένει για τον καλό Θεό που υπέφερε για χάρη μας, για τους πεινασμένους που θα χορτάσουν, για τους ταπεινούς που θα ανυψωθούν, για τους φιλάνθρωπους που θα ελεηθούν.... να κρατάς μικρό καλάθι ή να βρίσκεσαι στο κατάρτι γερα δεμένος....

Η ιστορία αιώνων μας αποδεικνύει πως δεν πρέπει να ακούμε τις σειρήνες... γιατί μόνο τα κόκαλα των ανθρώπων στα βράχια τους υπάρχουν.

Τα κόκαλα και οι σκελετοί των ανθρώπων που σε ένα κόσμο δύσκολο αναζήτησαν παρηγοριά και καταφύγιο σαν δειλοί σε στάνες,σε ψεύτικα λόγια και μεγάλα, σε “θεούς” που υπόσχονται πολλά.

ΟΙ ΣΕΙΡΗΝΕΣ ΚΑΛΟΥΝ ΤΟΝ ΟΔΥΣΣΕΑ

Η ΑΡΠΑΓΗ ΤΗΣ ΕΥΡΩΠΗΣ ΣΥΜΦΩΝΑ ΜΕ ΤΟ ΛΟΥΚΙΑΝΟ

ΖΕΦΥΡΟΣ:  Ποτέ δεν είδα τόσο μεγαλόπρεπη πομπή στη θάλασσα, αφ’ ότου υπάρχω και πνέω. Εσύ δεν την είδες Νότε;

ΝΟΤΟΣ: Ποια πομπή εννοείς, Ζέφυρε; Και ποιοι έπαιρναν μέρος;

ΖΕΦΥΡΟΣ: Έχασες το πιο ευχάριστο θέαμα, που παρόμοιό του δε θα δεις ποτέ ξανά.

ΝΟΤΟΣ: Είχα δουλειά στην Ερυθρά θάλασσα και φύσηξα επίσης σε κάποια περιοχή της Ινδίας, στα παράλια της χώρας. Δεν έχω λοιπόν ιδέα για τι πράγμα μου μιλάς.

ΖΕΦΥΡΟΣ: Πες μου, ξέρεις τον Αγήνορα από τη Σιδώνα;

ΝΟΤΟΣ: Ναι, τον πατέρα της Ευρώπης. Και λοιπόν;

ΖΕΦΥΡΟΣ: Γι αυτή την κοπέλα θα σου διηγηθώ.

ΝΟΤΟΣ: Μήπως ο Δίας είναι ερωτευμένος μαζί της εδώ και καιρό; Τούτο το ξέρω από παλιά.

ΖΕΦΥΡΟΣ: Για τον έρωτα μπορεί να ξέρεις, άκου όμως τι έγινε στη συνέχεια. Η Ευρώπη παίζοντας κατέβηκε προς την ακτή μαζί με τις φιλενάδες της. Τότε ο Δίας πήρε τη μορφή ταύρου κι έπαιζε μαζί τους, πάρα πολύ όμορφος, γιατί ήταν κατάλευκος, με ωραία στριφογυριστά κέρατα και ήμερο βλέμμα. Πηδούσε λοιπόν κι αυτός στην ακρογιαλιά και μούγκριζε τόσο γλυκά, που η Ευρώπη τόλμησε ν’ ανέβει πάνω του. Μόλις έγινε αυτό, ο Δίας όρμησε προς τη θάλασσα με κείνη στην πλάτη του, έπεσε μέσα και κολυμπούσε. Αυτή τότε τρομοκρατήθηκε πολύ, με το αριστερό χέρι κρατιόταν από το κέρατο για να μη πέσει και με το άλλο κρατούσε το πέπλο της που ανέμιζε.

ΝΟΤΟΣ: Ευχάριστο το θέαμα που είδες, Ζέφυρε, και ερωτικό’ το Δία να κολυμπά και να μεταφέρει την αγαπημένη του!


 ΖΕΦΥΡΟΣ: Κι όμως ό,τι ακολούθησε ήταν πολύ πιο ευχάριστο, Νότε. Η Θάλασσα έμεινε αμέσως ακυμάτιστη, ηρέμησε κι έγινε λάδι. Όλοι εμείς κάναμε ησυχία και τους ακολουθούσαμε, απλοί θεατές των συμβάντων, ενώ Έρωτες πετούσαν δίπλα, λίγο πάνω από τη θάλασσα, ώστε να χαϊδεύουν πότε-πότε με την άκρη του ποδιού τους το νερό, και κρατώντας αναμμένες δάδες, τραγουδούσαν τον υμέναιο, και οι Νηρηίδες βγήκαν στην επιφάνεια και πήγαιναν δίπλα-δίπλα, καβάλα στα δελφίνια, χειροκροτώντας, ημίγυμνες στα περισσότερα μέλη του σώματός τους. Το γένος των Τριτώνων επίσης και όποιο άλλο θαλάσσιο πλάσμα δεν προκαλεί φόβο στο μάτι χόρευε γύρω από την κοπέλα. Ο Ποσειδώνας εξάλλου ανέβηκε σε άρμα με την Αμφιτρίτη (τη γυναίκα του) πλάι του κι άνοιγε χαρούμενος δρόμο για τον αδελφό του που κολυμπούσε. Το αποκορύφωμα ήταν πως δυο Τρίτωνες μετέφεραν την Αφροδίτη ξαπλωμένη σε κοχύλι να ραίνει τη νύφη με κάθε λογής άνθη. Όλα τούτα γίνονταν από τη Φοινίκη μέχρι την Κρήτη. Όταν όμως επιβιβάστηκε στο νησί, ο ταύρος δεν φαινόταν πια, αλλά ο Δίας πήρε από το χέρι την Ευρώπη και την οδήγησε στο Δικταίο άντρο, κατακόκκινη και με το βλέμμα χαμηλωμένο γιατί είχε πια καταλάβει που πήγαινε. Τότε εμείς πέσαμε ο καθένας στο πέλαγος προς διαφορετικές κατευθύνσεις και βυθιστήκαμε στα κύματα.

ΝΟΤΟΣ: Τυχερέ Ζέφυρε, τι όμορφο θέαμα είδες! Αντίθετα εγώ είδα μόνο γύπες, ελέφαντες και μαύρους ανθρώπους.

 (Λουκιανός, «Ενάλιοι διάλογοι» μετάφραση εκδόσεων «Κάκτος»)

Έδιναν θάρρος κι έπαιρναν κι ευχόταν ο καθένας σ’ όλους τους αθανάτους σηκώνοντας τα χέρια

«Έδιναν  θάρρος  κι  έπαιρναν  κι  ευχόταν  ο  καθένας

σ’  όλους  τους  αθανάτους  σηκώνοντας  τα  χέρια

και  πιο  πολύ  ο  Νέστορας  των  Αχαιών  η  σκέπη

προσεύχονταν  απλώνοντας  τα  χέρια  του  προς  τα  άστρα:

«  Πατέρα  Δία, αν  κανείς  στο  πολυσίταρο  Άργος

προβάτου  ή  βοδιού μεριά καίγοντας  σου  ζητούσε

στην  χώρα  του  να  ξαναρθεί κι  εσύ  το  είχες  τάξει

θυμήσου το  Ολύμπιε, διώξε  την  μαύρη  μέρα,

τους  Δαναούς  ν’  αφανιστούν  έτσι  μην τους  αφήνεις !»

                                                                                Ιλιάδα             Ο  368 – 376

Γνωρίζετε οτι υπάρχει πόλη ΚΥΜΗ την Ιταλια ?

Γνωρίζετε οτι υπάρχει πόλη ΚΥΜΗ την Ιταλια ?Η Κύμη ήταν αρχαία ελληνική αποικία της Κάτω Ιταλίας στην περιοχή της Καμπανίας, βορειοδυτικά της Νάπολης. Ιδρύθηκε από Ευβοείς από την Χαλκίδα και την Κύμη στα μέσα του 8ου αιώνα. Ήταν η πρώτη ελληνική αποικία στην Ιταλική ενδοχώρα και από τις πρώτες αποικίες που ιδρύθηκαν κατά τον δεύτερο ελληνικό αποικισμό . Από την αποικία Κύμη θεωρείται πως εισήχθη το ελληνικό αλφάβητο στην Ιταλική χερσόνησο.!!!!

ΔΕΝ ΕΠΑΡΚΩ ΣΤΟΝ ΕΑΥΤΟ ΜΟΥ - ΠΑΡΜΕΝΙΔΗΣ - ΔΑΗΜΩΝ

Μέλος: ΔΑΗΜΩΝ (Γιάννης Φουστέρης)
Λόγος: ΠΑΡΜΕΝΙΔΗΣ ΙΩ. ΜΠΟΥΣΙΟΣ
Απαγγελία: ΠΑΡΜΕΝΙΔΗΣ ΙΩ. ΜΠΟΥΣΙΟΣ

Greece, like China, is a country of four thousand years of undisrupted habitation

Greece, like China, is a country of four thousand years of undisrupted habitation of the same historic people, with continuity in culture and history, and millennia of survival and development of its language. The legacy of the ancient Macedonians is not attested only in the Greek language of the modern inhabitants of Makedonia, in Northern Greece. It is also attested in the vast cultural relics spread throughout Μακεδονία/Macedonia: Homeric Macedonian "Toumbes"-tombs, ancient Greek theaters, Hellenic epigraphy and, of course, Temples to ancient Greek Gods and Goddesses, like the aforementioned Naos-temple of Aphrodite in downtown Thessaloniki.

The 'Four Lakes Culture' of prehistoric Macedonia Greece

Elements from a culture that lasted for more than 8,000 years come to light through the widespread and perennial archaeological excavation in the “four lakes” area of Amyntaio, Florina, in Macedonia Greece.

Human shaped vessels. 4500-3100 BC, Limnochori, Amyntaio [Credit: Archaiologia]

“The Four Lakes Culture” is the title for 29th Ephorate archaeologist Panikos Chrysostomou’s lecture given during the annual conference for the Archaeoogical Work in Macedonia and Thrace, which takes place in Thessaloniki.

During the lecture, which gave impressive facts for settlements, habits, architecture and people’s daily life, the chronological dip reaches as deep as 6500 BC, then following the track of the…water and every human activity in relation and in direct connection to it, up to the Iron Age and the 5th century BC.

“The first settlements were created during the second half of the 7th millenium BC, in or near lakes and bogs. Lake settlements of the next two milleniums were organised in neighbourhoods of three or six houses “built” on common platforms made of horizontally placed wooden beams. Usually, the houses were ground floored, with a two-sloped roof. However, the layers made of repetitive fires and the neolithic villages’ destructions that followed, show that many houses were distinguished for their size, they had doors and windows in every wall and they had two levels, while a balcony was built along each wall of the first floor. On the contrary, the inland settlements, spatial organization was characterized by the allocation of shafts and enclosures between retaining walls, while houses were developed in clusters of five or six”. , says Mr. Chrysostomou.

Through the study of destruction layers made by the fire-stricken neolithic houses’ remains, archaeologists found out about their internal spatial organization. As a result we know that every house had from one up to three rooms and contained an oven or a hearth used for preparing food and providing heating, cases and larche storage jars for storing crops, pottery vessels for preparing, serving and storing food, benches, domestic utensils etc. At Limnochori settlement, a 7,500 year old four-post seat came to light while a number of ceramic shards dating from 6000 BC probably consisted a pot for mixing food and has been characterised as “an antique mixer”. Finally, jewellery formed by disc-shaped beads of various sizes and materials, pendants and bracelets were probably expressing the period’s sense of style as well as its symbolism.

Funerary customs were diverse according to the area and teh period. As a result, while in the beginning of the Neolithic Period we meet only burials in a foetal position in the Amyntaion Basin, in the end of the period, at least in the Chimaditis Lake area, we find cremations and pithos burials (enchytrismoi), while sometimes the deceased’s ashes are kept in urns.

Stone, bone and bronze objects are also found from the Bronze Age (3100-1100 BC) while a fire at the end of the period destriys completely every element of life, sinking every housing remain on the lake’s bottom.

The following Iron Age (1100-5th century BC) is represented only by finds from cemeteries, especially the one of Aghios Panteleimon, Amyntaion. A stone-built bench for funerary meals was found during last digging season. Pits full of bones and grave goods were found around this bench. Among the finds are a bronze gold nailed sword (from a male burial) and a diadem and coiffure and dress elements (from a female burial). Overall, the site gave five tumuloi containing 148 cist graves and a cluster of more tombs around the royal tomb. Also, the luxurious items (diadem and composite jewellery) in the female burial demonstrate the existance of social stratification and, possibly, a kind of priesthood.

Ancient burials unearthed in Western Macedonia Greece

The graves of eleven individuals buried together with their domestic animals have been found during the course of rescue excavations carried out at Mavropigi in western Macedonia. 

Horse burial excavated at Mavropigi [Credit: Ethnos]

The findings, dating to the late 6th and early 5th century BC, are significant, say archaeologists, because it is the first time this type of burial has been found on such a scale in Greece. 

"We have found the remains of eleven people and sixteen animals, including horses, dogs, cattle, buffalo and pig," says archaeologist Dr. Georgia Karamitrou. 

"Similar burials have been found in isolation elsewhere in Greece. Men were typically buried with their horses to emphasize their social status. Children's burials have also been discovered along with their pet dogs or turtles. In this case, however, it is ordinary people, ordinary farmers, that have been buried together with their livestock", notes Dr. Karamitrou. 

Three of the women wore bronze bracelets on their forearms and lower limbs [Credit: Ethnos]

Two groups of graves were found at the site. One covered an area of about 100 square metres and comprised of nine cist graves and eight animals - five horses and three dogs. The other had two burials and eight animals - two horses, three dogs, two cows and a pig. 

The animals had been placed around the perimeter of the graves at short distance, approx. 0.50 to 1,30 m. 

The human remains are mostly those of men and women, though a child's grave was also found. An assortment of clay vases, bronze jewelry (bracelets, earrings) and iron weapons (knives, spears) featured among the grave goods recovered. 

Future analysis of the remains is expected to yield important information not only about the social structure of the inhabitants and their culture, but also as to the types of aminals found in Macedonia during the 6th century BC. 

6,000 yr old wine discovered in eastern Macedonia Greece

In the prehistoric settlement of Dikili Tash were discovered the oldest samples of wine that were ever recorded in Europe. The samples date back to 4200 BC and reverse existing data regarding the way of living during the Neolithic period.

Excavations at Dikili Tash [Credit: Ethnos]

The prehistoric site of Dikili Tash is located south east of Drama in Eastern Macedonia, Greece. It lies approximately 2 km from the ruins of the ancient city of Philippi and within the limits of the modern town of Krinides (Municipality of Kavala).

“It is an impressive and important discovery,” the archaeologist of the 17th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities and co-director of the excavations at Dikili Tash Dimitra Malamidou told dimokratianews.gr. She explained that, “During the excavations that took place in a house on the archaeological site, called House 1, quantities of carbonized grape berries that had been pressed were discovered in pots, a fact which proves the extraction of juice from grapes.”

“So far, we knew that people drank wine in the Bronze Age (from the 12th century B.C. henceforth), but now we learn that the wine-making process was known long before that Age, since 4200 BC,” Malamidou stated. Based on the new findings occur new data regarding the consumption of wine, as well as the social groups of the Neolithic period.

Ο Οβίδιος γράφει στις ''Μεταμορφώσεις

Ο Οβίδιος γράφει στις ''Μεταμορφώσεις'': «Ο Προμηθέας έπλασε τον άνθρωπο, με των θεών να μοιάζει την εικόνα, που όλο τον κόσμο κυβερνούν. Κι ενώ τα άλλα ζώα σκυφτά κοιτάζουνε τη γη, στον άνθρωπο χαρίζει να ’χει ψηλά το πρόσωπο, τον ουρανό να βλέπει κι ορθή την όψη πρόσταξε να τη σηκώνει στ’ άστρα».

The speech of the ancient Macedonians

The speech of the ancient Macedonians, in the light of recent epigraphic discoveries

By Miltiades Hatzopoulos, VI International Symposion on Ancient Macedonia, 1999.

Modern discussion of the speech of the ancient Macedonians began in 1808, when F. G. Sturz published a small book entitled De dialecto macedonica liber (Leipzig 1808), intended to be a scientific enquiry into the position of Macedonian within Greek. However, after the publication of O. Müller’s work Über die Wohnsitz, die Abstammung und die ältere Geschichte des makedonischen Volks (Berlin 1825), the discussion evolved into an acrimonious controversy -- initially scientific but soon political -- about the Greek or non-Greek nature of this tongue. Diverse theories were put forward:

I) Macedonian is a mixed language either of partly Illyrian origin -- such was the position of Müller himself, G. Kazaroff, M. Rostovtzeff, M. Budimir, H. Baric; or of partly Thracian origin, as it was maintained by D. Tzanoff.
II) Macedonian is a separate Indo-European language. This was the opinion of V. Pisani, I. Russu, G. Mihailov, P. Chantraine, I. Pudic, C. D. Buck, E. Schwyzer, V. Georgiev, W. W. Tarn and of O. Masson in his youth.
III) But according to most scholars Macedonian was a Greek dialect. This view has been expanded by F. G. Sturz, A. Fick, G. Hatzidakis, O. Hoffmann, F. Solmsen, V. Lesny, Andriotis, F. Geyer, N. G. L. Hammond, N. Kalleris, A. Toynbee, Ch. Edson and O. Masson in his mature years.
IV) Finally, a small number of scholars thought that the evidence available was not sufficient to form an opinion. Such was the view of A. Meillet and A. Momigliano.
Whatever the scientific merits of the above scholars, it was the nature of the evidence itself and, above all, its scarcity, which allowed the propounding of opinions so diverse and incompatible between themselves.
In fact, not one phrase of Macedonian, not one complete syntagm had come down to us in the literary tradition;

• because Macedonian, like many other Greek dialects, was never promoted to the dignity of a literary vehicle;
• because the Temenid kings, when they endowed their administration with a chancery worthy of the name, adopted the Attic koine, which in the middle of the fourth century was prevailing as the common administrative idiom around the shores of the Aegean basin.

Thus, the only available source for knowledge of Macedonian speech were the glosses, that is to say isolated words collected by lexicographers mainly from literary works because of their rarity or strangeness, and also personal names which, as we know, are formed from appellatives (Νικηφόρος< νίκη + φέρω).
The glosses, rare and strange words by definition, had the major defect of being liable to corruption, to alterations, in the course of transmission through the ages by copyists who could not recognise them.
As far as personal names are concerned, for want of scientific epigraphic corpora of the Macedonian regions, until very recently it was impossible to compile trustworthy lists.
On top of that, these two sources of information, far from leading to convergent conclusions, suggested conflicting orientations.
While the glosses included, besides words with a more or less clear Greek etymology (καρπαία· ὄρχησις μακεδονική [cf. καρπός]· κύνουπες· ἄρκτοι· Μακεδόνες [cf. κύνωψ]˙ ῥάματα· βοτρύδια, σταφυλίς· Μακεδόνες [cf. ῥάξ, gen. ῥαγός]), a significant number of terms hard to interpret as Greek ( γόδα˙ ἔντερα˙. Μακεδόνες; γοτάν˙ ὗν˙ Μακεδόνες; σκοῖδος˙ ἀρχή τις παρὰ Μακεδόσι [Hesychius]), the vast majority of personal names, not only were perfectly Greek (Φίλιππος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Παρμενίων, Ἀντίπατρος, Ἀντίοχος, Ἀρσινόη, Εὐρυδίκη) but also presented original traits excluding the possibility of their being borrowed from the Attic dialect, which was the official idiom of the kingdom (Ἀμύντας, Μαχάτας, Ἀλκέτας, Λάαγος), indeed from any other Greek dialect (Πτολεμαῖος, Κρατεύας, Βούπλαγος).
Until very recently it was hard to tell which set of evidence was more trustworthy.
During the last thirty years the situation has radically changed thanks to the publication of the epigraphic corpora of Thessalonike (1972) and Northern Macedonia (1999) by the Berlin Academy and of Upper Macedonia (1985) and Beroia (1998) by the Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity (KERA). Meanwhile the latter centre has also published three important onomastic collections: of Beroia, of Edessa and of Macedonians attested outside their homeland.
This intense epigraphic activity fed by continuous archaeological discoveries has brought to light an abundance of documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian. This new body of evidence renders to a large extent irrelevant the old controversies and requires an ab initio re-opening of the discussion on a different basis.

Old theories however, die hard and relics of obsolete erudition still encumber handbooks and scientific journals. I particularly have in mind R. A. Crossland’s chapter in the second edition of volume III 1 of the Cambridge Ancient History and E. N. Borza’s latest booklet Before Alexander. Constructions of Early Macedonia published respectively in 1982 and 1999.
One reason – perhaps the main one – for such resistance to the assimilation of new evidence and persistence of obsolete theories until these very last years is the way in which since the nineteenth century the scholarly discussion about Macedonian speech and its Greek or non-Greek character has focused on the sporadic presence in Macedonian glosses and proper names -- which otherwise looked perfectly Greek -- of the sign of the voiced stop (β, δ, γ) instead of the corresponding unvoiced, originally “aspirated” stop expected in Greek, as for instance in Βάλακρος and Βερενίκα instead of Φάλακρος and Φερενίκα.
Here I must open a parenthesis. The traditional English pronunciation of classical Greek presents an obstacle to the understanding of the problem. To make things simple, one may say that classical Greek originally possessed several series of occlusive consonants or stops, that is to say consonants obtained by the momentary occlusion of the respiratory ducts. These, according to the articulatory region, can be distinguished into labials, dentals and velars (the occlusion is respectively performed by the lips, the teeth or the velum of the palate) and, according to the articulatory mode, into unvoiced (/p/, /t/, /k/), voiced (/b/, /d/, /g/) and unvoiced “aspirates” – in fact “expirates”, that is to say, accompanied by a breathing – (/ph/, /th/, /kh/). These “aspirates”, in some dialects from the archaic period and in most by the Hellenistic age, had become spirants, that is to say they were no longer obtained by the complete occlusion of the respiratory ducts, but by their simple contraction and were accordingly pronounced as /f/, /θ/, /χ/. At the same time the voiced stops also might, according to the phonetic context, lose their occlusion and become spirants pronounced /v/, /δ/, /γ/. In fact, the chronology of the passage from the “classical” to the “Hellenistic” pronunciation varied according to dialect and to region.
The occlusive consonants of Greek are the heirs of an Indo-European system which differed from the Greek one in that it possessed an additional series of occlusive consonants pronounced with both the lips and the velum. This series survived until the Mycenaean period, but was subsequently eliminated from all Greek dialects in various ways. Moreover, in the Indo-European system of consonants the place of the Greek series of unvoiced “aspirate” stops was occupied by a series of voiced “aspirate” stops, that is to say voiced stops accompanied by a breathing. These last ones (/bh/, /dh/, /gh/, gwh/) survived to a large extent only in Sanskrit and in modern Indian dialects. Elsewhere, they either lost their breathing (such is the case of the Slavonic, Germanic, and Celtic languages), or their sonority (such is the case of the Greek and Italic languages, in which they evolved into (/ph/, /th/, /kh/, /khw/). Thus the root bher- is represented by the verb bharami in Sanskrit, bero in Old Slavonic, baira in Gothic, berim in ancient Irish, φέρω in Greek and fero in Latin.
The supporters of the non-Greek nature of Macedonian reasoned as follows: if, instead of the well known Greek personal names Φάλακρος (“the bald one”) or Φερενίκη (“she who brings victory”) with a phi, we read the names Βάλακρος or Βερενίκα with a beta on the inscriptions of Macedonia, this is because the Macedonian tongue has not participated in the same consonant mutations as prehistoric Greek -- already before the first Mycenaean documents in Linear B -- which had transformed the “aspirate” voiced stops of Indo-European (/bh/, /dh/, /gh/) into “aspirate” unvoiced stops (/ph/, /th/, /kh/). That is to say that, instead of the loss of sonority of Greek, in Macedonian we are dealing with the loss of “aspiration” in Macedonian, which classifies the latter along with the Slavonic, the Germanic and the Celtic languages.
But, if Macedonian was separated from Greek before the second millennium B.C., it cannot be considered a Greek dialect, even an aberrant one.
What the partisans of such theories have not always explicitly stated is that they all rely on the postulate that the sounds rendered by the signs β, δ, γ in Macedonian glosses and proper names are the direct heirs of the series of voiced “aspirate” stops of Indo-European and do not result from a secondary sonorisation, within Greek, of the series represented by the signs φ, θ, χ. However, one must be wary of short-cuts and simplifications in linguistics. For instance, the sound /t/ in the German word “Mutter” is not the direct heir of the same sound in the Indo-European word *mater, but has evolved from the common Germanic form *moδer, which was the reflex of Indo-European *mater.
The example of Latin demonstrates that the evolution /bh/>/ph/>/f/>/v/>/b/, envisaged above, is perfectly possible. Thus, the form albus (“white”) in Latin does not come directly from Indo-European *albhos. In fact the stem albh- became first alph- and then alf- in Italic, and it was only secondarily that the resulting spirant sonorised into alv- which evolved into alb- in Latin (cf. alfu=albos in Umbrian and ἀλφούς˙ λευκούς in Greek).
G. Hatzidakis (see especially Zur Abstammung der alten Makedonier [Athens 1897] 35-37) was the first – and for many years the only one – to stress the importance -- and at the same time the weakness -- of the implicit postulate of the partisans of the non-Greek character of Macedonian, to wit the alleged direct descent of the series represented by the signs of the voiced stops in the Macedonian glosses and personal names from the Indo-European series of “aspirate” voiced stops.
Since the middle of the eighties of the last century the acceleration of archaeological research in Macedonia and also the activities of the Macedonian Programme of the Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity (KERA) mentioned above have occasioned numerous scholarly works exploiting the new evidence has been collected and allows us to go beyond the Gordian knot which since the nineteenth century had kept captive all discussion about the tongue of the ancient Macedonians (Cl. Brixhe, Anna Panayotou, O. Masson, L. Dubois, M. B. Hatzopoulos). It would not be an exaggeration to say that henceforward the obstacle hindering the identification of the language spoken by Philip and Alexander has been removed: ancient Macedonian, as we shall see, was really and truly a Greek dialect. On this point all linguists or philologists actively dealing with the problem are of the same opinion. It is equally true that they do not agree on everything. Two questions still raise serious contention:
a) How should be explained this sporadic presence in Macedonian glosses and proper names of the signs of voiced stops (β, δ, γ) instead of the corresponding originally “aspirate” unvoiced ones (φ, θ, χ) of the other Greek dialects?
b) What is the dialectal position of Macedonian within Greek?

The first question has been tackled several times in recent years, but with divergent conclusions by Cl. Brixhe and Anna Panayotou on the one hand and O. Masson, L. Dubois and the present speaker on the other.
On the question of the dialectal affinities of Macedonian within Greek, besides the above mentioned scholars, N. G. L. Hammond and E. Voutiras have also made significant contributions. As far as I am concerned I have been gradually convinced that the two questions are intimately linked, or rather, that the search for the affinities of the Macedonian dialect can provide a satisfactory explanation of this controversial particularity of its consonantal system.

A problematic mutation

Down to very recent years discussion on the topic on the Macedonian consonantal system was almost exclusively dependent on literary evidence.
The systematic collection of inscriptions from Macedonia in the Epigraphic Archive of KERA occasioned the publication of three articles exploiting this epigraphic material, the first two in 1987 and the third in 1988.
The first one, written by the present speaker had its starting point in a series of manumissions by consecration to Artemis from the territory of Aigeai (modern Vergina), who was qualified as Διγαία and Βλαγαν(ε)ῖτις, the latter derived from the place name at which she was venerated (ἐν Βλαγάνοις).
It was obvious to me that the first epiclesis was nothing else than the local form of the adjective δίκαιος, δικαία, δίκαιον (“the just one”).
As for the explanation of the less obvious epiclesis Blaganitis and of the place name Blaganoi, the clue was provided by Hesychius’ gloss βλαχάν˙ ὁ βάτραχος, which I connected with one of the manumission texts qualifying Artemis as the godess [τῶν β]ατράχων.
The two epicleseis of Artemis demonstrated that Macedonian might occasionally present voiced consonants – in the case in hand represented by the letter gamma — not only instead of unvoiced “aspirates” (in this case represented by the letter chi of βλαχάν) but also instead of simple unvoiced stops (in this case represented by the letter kappa of Δικαία).
This discovery had important implications, because it showed that the phenomenon under examination, of which I collected numerous examples, had nothing to do with a consonant mutation going back to Indo-European, which could concern only the voiced “aspirates” and would make a separate language of Macedonian, different from the other Greek dialects. In fact, it ought to be interpreted as a secondary and relatively recent change within Greek, which had only partially run its course, as becomes apparent from the coexistence of forms with voiced as well as unvoiced consonants also in the case of the simple unvoiced stop (cf. Κλεοπάτρα-Γλευπάτρα, Βάλακρος-Βάλαγρος, Κερτίμμας-Κερδίμμας, Κυδίας-Γυδίας, Κραστωνία-Γραστωνία, Γορτυνία-Γορδυνία), but also from the presence of “hypercorrect” forms (cf. ὑπρισθῆναι=ὑβρισθῆναι, κλυκυτάτῃ=γλυκυτάτῃ, τάκρυν=δάκρυν).
This tendency to voice the unvoiced consonants was undoubtedly impeded after the introduction of Attic koine as the administrative language of the Macedonian state and only accidentally and sporadically left traces in the written records, especially in the case of local terms and proper names which had no correspondents and, consequently, no model in the official idiom.
In the second article published the same year I collected examples of forms with voiced and unvoiced sounds inherited from Indo-European voiced “aspirates” and was able to identify the complete series of feminine proper names with a voiced labial formed on the stem of φίλος: Βίλα, Βιλίστα, Βιλιστίχη parallel to Φίλα, Φιλίστα, Φιλιστίχη.
These names presenting a voiced consonant, rendered by a beta, formed according to the rules of Greek, and the Greek etymology of which was beyond doubt, convinced me that the explanation of the phenomenon should be sought within that language.
The third article, written jointly by Cl. Brixhe and Anna Panayotou, who was then preparing a thesis on the Greek language of the inscriptions found in Macedonia on the basis of the epigraphic documentation collected at KERA, followed another orientation.
– Whereas new evidence did not leave them in any doubt that the Macedonian of historical times spoken by Philip II and Alexander the Great was a Greek dialect, they contended that, besides this Macedonian, there had formerly existed another language in which the Indo-European “aspirates” had become voiced stops and that this language had provided the proper names and the appellatives presenting voiced stops instead of the unvoiced stops of Greek, for instance Βερενίκα and Βάλακρος instead of Φερενίκα and Φάλακρος.
These ideas were later developed and completed in a chapter devoted to Macedonian and published in a collective volume. In this paper Cl. Brixhe and Anna Panayotou identified this other language that according to them had disappeared before the end of the fifth century B.C., not before playing “a not insignificant part in the genesis of the Macedonian entity”, with the language of the Brygians or Phrygians of Europe.
Such was the beginning of a long controversy in the form of articles, communications to congresses and also private correspondence, which, as far as I am concerned, was particularly enriching, because it gave me the opportunity to refine my arguments.
Their objection, at first sight reasonable, to wit that a form such as Βερενίκα cannot be the product of the voicing of the first phoneme of Φερενίκα, for the “aspirate’ stop /ph/ has no voiced correspondent in Greek, obliged me to examine their postulate on the conservative character of the pronunciation of the consonants and, in a more general way, of the Attic koine spoken in Macedonia.
With the help of documents such as the deeds of sale from Amphipolis and the Chalkidike and of the boundary ordinance from Mygdonia, I was able to show that by the middle of the fourth century in Northern Greece
– the ancient “aspirate” stops written with the help of the signs φ,θ,χ had already lost their occlusion and had become spirants, that is to say they were formed by the simple contraction instead of the complete occlusion of the respiratory ducts;
– the ancient voiced stops written with the help of the signs β, δ, γ were pronounced, without any phonological significance, as spirants as well as stops, according to the phonetic context, just like in modern Castillian (ἄνδρες-πόδες; cf. andar-querido).
This contention is proved by “errors” such as βεφαίως in a mid-fourth century B.C. deed of sale from Amphipolis, which cannot be explained unless phi, pronounced like an f, indicated the unvoiced correspondent of the phoneme pronounced like a v and written with the help of the letter beta.
On the other hand, I drew attention to a series of allegedly “Brygian” terms – since they are found in Macedonian proper names presenting voiced consonants as reflexes of Indo-European voiced “aspirates” – which, however, showed a suspicious likeness with Greek words not only in their stems, but also in their derivation and composition. Thus, if we accept the Brygian theory, the name of the fifth Macedonian month Ξανδικός presupposes the existence of a Brygian adjectif xandos parallel to Greek ξανθός; likewise the Macedonian personal name Γαιτέας a Brygian substantive gaita (mane) parallel to Greek χαίτα (χαίτη); the Macedonian personal name Βουλομάγα a Brygian substantive maga parallel to Greek μάχα (μάχη); the Macedonian personal name Σταδμέας a Brygian substantive stadmos parallel to Greek σταθμός; the Macedonian personal names Βίλος, Βίλα, Βίλιστος, Βιλίστα a Brygian stem bil- parallel to Greek phil- and also Brygian rules of derivation identical to the Greek ones responsible for the formation of the superlative φίλιστος, φιλίστα (φιλίστη) and of the corresponding personal names Φίλιστος, Φιλίστα (Φιλίστη); the compound Macedonian personal names Βερενίκα and Βουλομάγα not only the Brygian substantives nika, bulon, maga and the verb bero parallel to Greek νίκα, φῦλον, μάχα, φέρω, but on top of that rules of composition identical to the Greek ones responsible for the formation of the corresponding Greek personal names Φερενίκα and Φυλομάχη.
However, the Brygian language reconstituted in this manner is not credible, for it looks suspiciously like Greek in disguise.
Finally, a series of observations 1) on the names of the Macedonian months, 2) on the use of the patronymic adjective, and 3) on a neglected piece of evidence for the Macedonian speech, induced me to reconsider the connexion between Macedonian and the Thessalian dialects.
1) The Macedonian calendar plays a significant role in the Brygian theory, because according to the latter’s supporters it testified the “undeniable cultural influence” of the Phrygian people in the formation of the Macedonian ethnos. They particularly refer to the months Audnaios, Xandikos, Gorpiaios and Hyperberetaios, which according to them can find no explanation in Greek.
– In fact, the different variants of the first month (Αὐδωναῖος, Αὐδυναῖος, Αὐδναῖος, Ἀϊδωναῖος) leave no doubt that the original form is ἈFιδωναῖος, which derives from the name of Hades, “the invisible” (a-wid-) and followed two different evolutions: on the one hand ἈFιδωναῖος>Αὐδωναῖος>Αὐδυναῖος>Αὐδναῖος, with the disappearence of the closed vowel /i/ and the vocalisation of the semi-vowel /w/ and, later, with the closing of the long vowel /o:/ into /u/ (written –υ-) and finally with the disappearence of this closed vowel, and, on the other hand ἈFιδωναῖος> Ἀϊδωναῖος, with the simple loss of intervocalic /w/.
– The case of Xandikos is even clearer. It was felt as a simple dialectal variant within the Greek language, as is apparent from the form Ξανθικός attested both in literary texts and in inscriptions.
– Concerning Γορπιαῖος, Hofmann had already realised that it should be connected with καρπός, the word for fruit in Greek, which makes good sense for a month corresponding roughly to August (cf. the revolutionary month Fructidor). This intuition is confirmed today, on the one hand by the cult of Dionysos Κάρπιος attested in neighbouring Thessaly and, on the other hand, by the variant Γαρπιαῖος showing that we are dealing with a sonorisation of the unvoiced initial consonant, a banal phenomenon in Macedonia, and a double treatment of the semi-vowel /r/, of which there are other examples from both Macedonia and Thessaly.
– The name of the twelfth month Ὑπερβερεταῖος, the Greek etymology of which was put in doubt, orientates us too in the direction of Thessaly. In fact it is inseparable from the cult of Zeus Περφερέτας also attested in nearby Thessaly.
2) At the exhibition organised at Thessalonike in 1997 and entitled Ἐπιγραφὲς τῆς Μακεδονίας was presented an elegant funerary monument from the territory of Thessalonike of the first half of the third century B.C. bearing the inscription Πισταρέτα Θρασίππεια κόρα.
– Κόρα as a dialectal form of Attic κόρη is also known from other inscriptions found in Macedonia. As for the use of the patronymic adjective instead of the genitive as a mark of filiation (Ἀλέξανδρος Φιλίππειος instead of Ἀλέξανδρος Φιλίππου), which is characteristic of Thessalian and more generally of the "Aeolic" dialects, it had been postulated by O. Hoffmann on the basis of names of cities founded by the Macedonians, such as Ἀλεξάνδρεια, Ἀντιγόνεια, Ἀντιόχεια, Σελεύκεια. Now it was for the first time directly attested in a text which could be qualified as dialectal.
– The confirmation that the patronymic adjective constitutes a local Macedonian characteristic and that the monument of Pistareta could not be dismissed as set up by some immigrant Thessalians was provided by a third century B.C. manumission from Beroia, which, although written in Attic koine,refers to the daughter of a certain Agelaos as τὴν θυγατέρα τὴν Ἀγελαείαν.
3) Finally, although it had been known for centuries, recent studies have ignored the sole direct attestation of Macedonian speech preserved in an ancient author. It is a verse in a non-Attic dialect that the fourth century Athenian poet Strattis in his comedy The Macedonians (Athen. VII, 323b) puts in the mouth of a character, presumably Macedonian, as an answer to the question of an Athenian ἡ σφύραινα δ’ἐστὶ τίς; (“The sphyraena, what’s that?”): κέστραν μὲν ὔμμες, ὡτικκοί, κικλήσκετε (“It’s what ye in Attica dub cestra”).
Thus research on the Macedonian consonantal system has led to the question of the dialectal affinities of this speech, to which it is closely connected.
It was natural that the major controversy about the Greek or non-Greek character of Macedonian had relegated to a secondary position the question of its position within the Greek dialects. Nevertheless it had not suppressed it completely.
Already F. G. Sturz, following Herodotos, considered Macedonian a Doric dialect, whereas O. Abel was even more precise and placed it among the northern Doric dialects. He thought that Strabo and Plutarch provided the necessary arguments for maintaining that Macedonian did not differ from Epirote.
It was the fundamental work of O. Hoffmann that forcibly introduced the Aeolic thesis into the discussion, which is largely accepted in our days (Daskalakis, Toynbee, Goukowsky).
The Doric-north-western thesis made a strong come-back thanks to the authority of J. N. Kalleris followed by G. Babiniotis, O. Masson and other scholars with more delicately shaded opinions (A. Tsopanakis, A. I. Thavoris, M. B. Sakellariou and Brixhe).
Finally, N. G. L. Hammond held a more original position, arguing for the parallel existence of two Macedonian dialects: one in Upper Macedonia close to the north-western dialects and another in Lower Macedonia close to Thessalian.
But a new piece of evidence, the publication of a lengthy dialectal text from Macedonia, created a new situation. It is a curse tablet from Pella dating from the first half of the fourth century B.C. which was discovered in a grave at Pella.

[Θετί]μας καὶ Διονυσοφῶντος τὸ τέλος καὶ τὸν γάμον καταγράφω καὶ τᾶν ἀλλᾶν πασᾶν γυ-

[ναικ]ῶν καὶ χηρᾶν καὶ παρθένων, μάλιστα δὲ Θετίμας, καὶ παρκαττίθεμαι Μάκρωνι καὶ

[τοῖς] δαίμοσι· καὶ ὁπόκα ἐγὼ ταῦτα διελέξαιμι καὶ ἀναγνοίην πάλειν ἀνορόξασα,

[τόκα] γᾶμαι Διονυσοφῶντα, πρότερον δὲ μή· μὴ γὰρ λάβοι ἄλλαν γυναῖκα ἀλλ’ ἢ ἐμέ,

[ἐμὲ δ]ὲ συνκαταγηρᾶσαι Διονυσοφῶντι καὶ μηδεμίαν ἄλλαν. Ἱκέτις ὑμῶ(ν) γίνο-

[μαι· Φίλ?]αν οἰκτίρετε, δαίμονες φίλ[ο]ι, δαπινὰ γάρ

ἰμε φίλων πάντων καὶ ἐρήμα· ἀλλὰ

[ταῦτ]α φυλάσσετε ἐμὶν ὅπως μὴ γίνηται τα[ῦ]τα καὶ

κακὰ κακῶς Θετίμα ἀπόληται.

[----]ΑΛ[----]ΥΝΜ..ΕΣΠΛΗΝ ἐμός, ἐμὲ δὲ [ε]ὐ[δ]αίμονα καὶ μακαρίαν γενέσται

[-----] ΤΟ[.].[----].[..]..Ε.Ε.ΕΩ[ ]Α.[.]Ε..ΜΕΓΕ[---]

“Of Thetima and Dinysophon the ritual wedding and the marriage I bind by a written spell, as well as (the marriage) of all other women (to him), both widows and maidens, but above all of Thetima; and I entrust (this spell) to Macron and the daimones. And were I ever to unfold and read these words again after digging (the tablet) up, only then should Dionysophon marry, not before; may he indeed not take another woman than myself, but let me alone grow old by the side of Dionysophon and no one else. I implore you: have pity for [Phila?], dear daimones, for I am indeed downcast and bereft of friends. But please keep this (piece of writing) for my sake so that these events do not happen and wretched Thetima perishes miserably. [---] but let me become happy and blessed. [---]” (translation by E. Voutiras, modified).
E. Voutiras, the editor of the tablet from Pella, was well aware of the linguistic traits that his text shared with the north-western Greek dialects: in particular the conservation of the long /a/ (or of its reflex: ἄλλαν), the contraction of /a/ and /o/ (short or long) into a long /a/ (or its reflex: ἀλλᾶν), the dative of the first person singular of the personal pronoun ἐμίν, the presence of temporal adverbs ending in –κα (ὁπόκα), the apocope of verbal prefixes (παρκαττίθεμαι), the dissimilation of consecutive spirants which betrays the use of the signs -στ- instead of -σθ-; but, on the other hand, he ignored, as if they were simple errors, the dialectal traits which did not conform to the purely north-western idea that he had of the dialect. These, as L. Dubois and I have pointed out, are in particular the forms διελέξαιμι, ἰμέ, ἀνορόξασα, δαπινά instead of διελίξαιμι, εἰμί, ἀνορύξασα, ταπεινά, which bear witness to phonetic phenomena having, in the first three cases, their correspondents both in dialectal Thessalian texts and in koine texts from Macedonia, whereas the fourth case presents the voicing of the unvoiced typical of the Macedonian dialect.
Cl. Brixhe returned to this text with a thorough analysis which confirmed and refined those of his predecessors. He pointed out the treatment of the group –sm-, with the elimination of the sibilant and the compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel, which is proper to north-western dialects but not Thessalian, the presence of the particle –κα, expected in the north-western dialects as opposed to Thessalian –κε, and the athematic form of the dative plural δαίμοσι, attested in the north-western dialects but not in Thessalian, where one would expect δαιμόνεσσι; he interpreted the graphic hesitation Ε/Ι, Ο/Υ (pronounced /u/) as resulting “from a tendency, in the Macedonian dialect and, later, in the koine of the region towards a closing of the vocales mediae e and o, respectively becoming i and u”, which indicated an affinity of Macedonian not with the north-western dialects but with Attic and even more with Boeotian and Thessalian and with the northern dialects of modern Greek; he adopted L. Dubois’ interpretation of δαπινά and admitted that the spirantisation of the “aspirates” and the voiced stops in Macedonian had already taken place in the classical period, but persisted in considering “more efficient” his interpretation of forms such as Βερενίκα as “Brygian” rather than Greek.
In my opinion the presence of forms such as διελέξαιμι, ἰμέ, ἀνορόξασα, δαπινά, expected in Macedonia but alien to the north-western dialects, is a decisive confirmation of the local origin of the author of the text and allows the elimination of the unlikely hypothesis that it might have been the work of an Epirote resident alien living in Pella. But this is not all. The fact that the closing of the vocales mediae, of which the first three examples bear witness, is a phenomenon well attested in Thessalian confirms the coexistence of north-western and of Thessalian characteristics in Macedonian; it indicates the intermediate position of the latter dialect, and legitimises the attempt to verify whether the tendency to voice the unvoiced consonants was not shared with at least some Thessalian dialects.
Kalleris had already pointed out that the place names Βοίβη and Βοιβηίς and the personal names Δρεβέλαος and Βερέκκας, which were attested in Thessaly but were unknown in Macedonia, respectively corresponded to Φοίβη, Φοιβηίς, Τρεφέλεως and to a composite name, the first element of which was Φερε-. Nevertheless he did not draw the conclusion that the sonorisation phenomenon, far from being limited to Macedonia, was common to that area and to Thessaly, because he refused to admit its localisation in Macedonia and in nearby areas, as P. Kretschmer had suggested.
In previous papers I had added to these place names a third one, Ὀττώλοβος (Ὀκτώλοφος), and a series of personal names either unknown (then) in Macedonia: Βουλονόα (Φυλονόα) or attested in a different form: Σταδμείας (Σταθμείας), Παντορδάνας (Παντορθάνας). The publication of fascicule III.B of the Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, which contains the onomastic material from Thessaly makes it now possible to add additional examples: Ἀμβίλογος, Βύλιππος, Βῦλος corresponding to Ἀμφίλοχος, Φύλιππος, Φῦλος, in the same manner that Βουλομάγα and Βουλονόα correspond to Φυλομάχη and Φυλονόη. Moreover, the frequent attestation of Κέββας in Thessaly does not allow us to consider it as an onomastic loan from Macedonia, where this personal name is attested only once.
Is it now possible to separate this hypocoristic from the family of personal names well represented in Thessaly and derived from the Greek appellative κεφαλή, one of which, namely Κεφαλῖνος, appears in Macedonia as Κεβαλῖνος? And if the purely Thessalian Ἀμβίλογος, Βύλιππος, Βῦλος, Βερέκκας or the both Thessalian and Macedonian Βουλομάγα, Βουλονόα, Κέββας find a perfect explication in Greek, what need is there to solicit the Phrygian language in order to explain the Macedonian form Βερενίκα, which is attested in Thessaly as Φερενίκα, since its case is strictly analogous to that of Κεβαλῖνος/Κεφαλῖνος?
If we now consider the geographic distribution of the forms with voiced consonants in Thessaly, we observe that they are concentrated in the northern part of the country, essentially in Pelasgiotis and Perrhaibia, with the greater concentration in the latter region. But in Macedonia also these forms are unequally distributed. They are to be found in significant numbers and variety – bearing witness to the authentic vitality of the phenomenon – in three cities or regions: Aigeai, Beroia and Pieria. Now all these three are situated in the extreme south-east of the country, in direct contact with Perrhaibia. I think that this geographical distribution provides the solution to the problem. We are dealing with a phonetic particularity of the Greek dialect spoken on either side of Mount Olympus, undoubtedly due to a substratum or an adstratum, possibly but not necessarily, Phrygian. If there remained any doubts regarding the Greek origin of the phenomenon, two personal names: Κεβαλῖνος and Βέτταλος should dispel it. It is well known that the first comes from the Indo-European stem *ghebh(e)l-. If, according to the “Brygian” hypothesis, the loss of sonority of the “aspirates” had not taken place before the dissimilation of the breathings, the form that the Greek dialect of Macedonia would have inherited would have been Γεβαλῖνος and not Κεβαλῖνος, which is the result first of the loss of sonority of the “aspirates’ and then of their dissimilation. Cl. Brixhe and Anna Panayotou, fully aware of the problem, elude it by supposing a “faux dialectisme”. Βέτταλος, on the other hand, is obviously a Macedonian form of the ethnic Θετταλός used as a personal name with a probable transfer of the accent. We also know that the opposition between Attic Θετταλός and Boeotian Φετταλός requires an initial *gwhe-. Given, on the one hand, that in Phrygian, contrary to Greek, the Indo-European labiovelars lost their velar appendix without conserving any trace thereof, the form that the Greek dialect of Macedonia should have inherited according to the “Brygian” hypothesis would have an initial *Γε-, which manifestly is not the case. On the other hand, the form Βέτταλος, which the Macedonians pronounced with a voiced initial consonant, is to be explained by a form of the continental Aeolic dialects, in which, as we know, the “aspirate” labio-velars followed by an /i/or an /e/ became simple voiced labials. The Aeolic form Φετταλός, lying behind Βετταλός, provides us with a terminus post quem for the voicing phenomenon. For, if we take into consideration the spelling of the Mycenaean tablets, which still preserve a distinct series of signs for the labiovelars, it is necessary to date this phenomenon at a post-Mycenaean period, well after the elimination of the labio-velars, that is to say at the end of the second millennium B.C. at the earliest, and obviously within the Greek world. It is manifest that in the case of Βέτταλος an ad hoc hypothesis of a “faux dialectisme” is inadmissible, for at the late date at which a hypothetical Macedonian patriot might have been tempted to resort to such a form the Thessalian ethnic had long since been replaced by the Attic koine form Θετταλός. Its remodelling into a more “Macedonian-sounding” Βετταλός would have demanded a level of linguistic scholarship attained only in the nineteenth century A.D.

Historical Interpretation

According to Macedonian tradition the original nucleus of the Temenid kingdom was the principality of Lebaia, whence, after crossing Illyria and Upper Macedonia, issued the three Argive brothers , Gauanes, Aeropos and Perdikkas, as they moved to conquer first the region of Beroia, then Aigeai and finally the rest of Macedonia.
It is highly probable that the royal Argive ancestry was a legend invented in order to create a distance and a hierarchy between common Macedonians and a foreign dynasty allegedly of divine descent. Might this legend nevetheless not retain, some authentic historical reminiscence?
In a previous paper, first read at Oxford some years ago, I attempted to show that Lebaia was a real place in the middle Haliakmon valley near the modern town of Velvendos, a region the economy of which was until very recently based on transhumant pastoralism. It is a likely hypothesis that during the Geometric and the Archaic period too the inhabitants of this region made their living tending their flocks between the mountain masses of Olympus and the Pierians and the plains of Thessaly, Pieria and Emathia, until under a new dynasty they took the decisive step of permanently settling on the fringe of the great Macedonian plain, at Aigeai.
What were the ethnic affinities of these transhumant shepherds? A fragment of the Hesiodic catalogue preserves a tradition according to which Makedon and Magnes were the sons of Zeus and of Thyia, Deukalion’s daughter, and lived around Pieria and Mount Olympus. The Magnetes, of whom Magnes was the eponymous hero, were one of the two major perioikic ethne of northern Thessaly, who originally spoke an Aeolic dialect.
The other one was the Perrhaibians. Although they were not mentioned in the Hesiodic fragment, we know by Strabo that even at a much later period they continued to practice transhumant pastoralism. Their close affinity with the Macedonians is evident not only from onomastic data, but also from their calendar. Half of the Perrhaibian months the names of which we know figure also in the Macedonian calendar. Thus, it is no coincidence that Hellenikos presents Makedon as the son of Aiolos.
The above data outline a vast area between the middle Peneios and the middle Haliakmon valleys, which in prehistoric times was haunted by groups of transhumant pastoralists who spoke closely related Greek dialects. Is it unreasonable to think that, just as in modern times the Vlachs of Vlacholivado, who frequented precisely the same regions, spoke, under the influence of the Greek adstratum, a peculiar neo-Latin dialect, their prehistoric predecessors had done the same (undoubtedly under the influence of another adstratum which remains to be defined) and that the tendency to voice the unvoiced consonants was one of these peculiarities?
As to the three Temenid brothers, according to Herodotos mythical founders of the Macedonian kingdom, already in antiquity there was a suspicion that they had not come from Peloponnesian Argos but from Argos Orestikon in Upper Macedonia, hence the name Argeadai given not only to the reigning dynasty but to the whole clan which had followed the three brothers in the adventure of the conquest of Lower Macedonia. Knowing that the Orestai belonged to the Molossian group, it is readily understandable how the prestigious elite of the new kingdom imposed its speech, and relegated to the status of a substratum patois the old Aeolic dialect, some traits of which, such as the tendency of closing the vocales mediae and the voicing of unvoiced consonants survived only in the form of traces, generally repressed, with the exception of certain place names, personal names and month names consecrated by tradition.